Housing in British Columbia: A Blueprint for Change

Paving the Way for Solutions Through Mission-Driven Innovation

Breaking Ground

A Blueprint for Change

Housing Transformation Begins Here

While addressing various aspects of the housing supply chain is essential, no single approach can fully solve the challenges we face in scaling housing production. The Housing Growth Innovation (HGI) Program plays a role in supporting broader efforts to develop smarter, faster and more sustainable homes. 

This initiative is driven by a clear, results-oriented mission: deploy technology, unite industry leaders and scale up sustainable housing that meets today’s needs while building for tomorrow. The path forward is straightforward:

  • Increase housing production to keep pace with unprecedented demand.
  • Leverage advanced technology to optimize and expedite the construction process.
  • Equip and expand the workforce, fostering long-term careers and economic growth.
  • Stimulate local economies through strategic construction and design investments.
  • Maintain affordability and sustainability as non-negotiables in every project.

At the core of HGI are three pillars:

  • Housing Growth Innovation Lab – a crucible for big ideas and practical collaboration.
  • Innovation Workshops & Regional Networks – ensuring province-wide engagement and benefits.
  • Mission Innovation Projects – clearing barriers to progress through modular builds and digital-first designs.

This isn't just about managing a crisis—it's about reshaping the province’s housing future. Everyone with a stake in B.C.’s prosperity has a role to play. The time to act is now.

This document is intended as a living resource, and we welcome your feedback and insights. A revised version will be published in the coming year.

Meet DIGITAL

A Peek Behind the Blueprint

DIGITAL is Canada’s leader in accelerating the development and commercialization of Canadian-made technologies that tackle some of the biggest challenges facing our economy and society. 

Our model combines collaborative innovation and co-investment to help Canadian businesses not only adopt and develop cutting-edge technologies but also grow a skilled workforce ready to fill the jobs of the digital economy today.

By bringing together businesses, academia, communities and government, we tackle the challenges that no single organization can solve alone. Through cross-sector collaboration, we unlock the potential of Canadian industry—helping it lead and succeed on a global stage.

In November 2023, we launched the Housing Growth Innovation Program, bringing together collaborative teams to find new ideas, test what works and build real solutions that grow B.C.’s construction sector. Together, we’re building homes, growing the economy and shaping our housing future.

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Province of British Columbia through the Ministry Housing.

This mission brief was reviewed and validated by Scius Advisory. Scius is a Canadian research, consulting and data company specializing in real estate and construction. Their professional insights and expertise have contributed to ensuring the accuracy and strategic alignment of the report’s content.

Laying the Foundation

To address the housing crisis in B.C., we must first confront its complex origins—systemic inefficiencies, regulatory bottlenecks and a fragmented construction industry. Understanding these deep-rooted challenges is essential to creating long-term solutions. By establishing a comprehensive foundation, we can drive innovation and build the housing capacity needed to meet the demands of every community in B.C.

Framing Our Future

Our Mission Purpose: Why It’s Time for a Fresh Take on Housing Challenges

B.C.’s housing crisis is a complex, multi-faceted challenge. We’re working to address it directly

Enter Mission-Driven Innovation (MDI)—our blueprint for real change.

By uniting industries, communities and leaders, MDI leverages cutting-edge technology and collaboration to drive smarter, faster and more sustainable housing solutions. The objective is clear: ensure every community in B.C. has the tools to build the housing it needs.

Mission-Driven Innovation

HOW MDI SHAPES OUR HOUSING GROWTH INNOVATION PROGRAM

Swipe through to see how the MDI framework evolves—it’s a dynamic process that generates new solutions and missions at every stage. This digital-first model addresses complex challenges like housing by fostering industry-wide collaboration and creating scalable, impactful solutions. Each slide reveals how theory and practice come together, driving real progress on critical issues.

Engage with each step and uncover how we’re driving impactful solutions.

We Can’t Do It Alone

Our Mission Statement: Advancing Industry-Wide Innovation

Housing is the cornerstone of community. Local businesses drive the builds, local workers sustain the growth and local people transform neighbourhoods into dynamic, thriving spaces. Through a Mission-Driven Innovation (MDI) approach, we empower these communities and spark change across the entire housing sector.

Now is the moment for B.C.’s builders, developers and innovators to come together and redefine housing production. Collaborative innovation is key to making progress and reshaping the housing landscape.

How Did We Get Here?

Tracing the Roots of our Housing Crisis

The housing crisis in B.C. didn’t appear overnight—it’s the result of entrenched, systemic inefficiencies that have hampered progress for years. To move forward, we need a comprehensive understanding of the entire housing ecosystem, from regulatory bottlenecks to construction delays. This goes well beyond basic supply and demand.

Dig deeper into these challenges

These deep-seated challenges, from inefficient construction practices to financial and regulatory hurdles, have contributed to the severe housing crisis B.C. faces today—requiring a transformation of how housing is built, financed and delivered across the province.

Click each of the challenges to jump to the full explanation, or scroll through each below.

01

Where We Stand: A Severe Housing Deficit

Access to affordable housing in B.C. has become increasingly scarce. The current picture is stark:

250

Home Affordability

The average income required to buy a home in B.C. is approximately $100,000. In Vancouver, that figure skyrockets to $250,000.

1

Rental Availability

Vacancy rates have stagnated at 1% for over a decade.

26,000

Homelessness

More than 26,000 people in B.C. are currently experiencing homelessness.

The ripple effects are clear: this crisis impedes economic growth, strains infrastructure and promotes urban sprawl—damaging both the environment and the quality of life. With B.C.’s population expected to rise by 2.2 million by 2046,this situation will only worsen unless we act decisively.

02

A Growing Population, A Struggling Supply Chain

To close the housing gap, Canada needs to build 3.1 million homes by 2030.In B.C., builders must triple their output to meet future demand.

  • In 2023, B.C. recorded 50,490 housing starts; however, this number must rise to 65,000 annually to keep pace.
  • The province will need to manage 100,000 units under construction simultaneously to meet ongoing demand.
03

Construction Inefficiencies: The Core Issue

The heart of provincial housing shortages lie in a fragmented and inefficient construction sector. Globally, productivity in construction has stagnated and B.C. is no exception:

85

Cost Overruns

85% of construction projects go over budget, with an average cost overrun of 28%. Only 31% of projects came within 10% of their budget.

24,000

Small Business Dominance

In Canada, 69% of construction firms have fewer than five employees. B.C. alone hosts over 24,000 residential construction businesses,most of which are small or micro-enterprises.

1

Innovation Deficit

Globally less than 1% of revenue in the construction industry is allocated to R&D,leaving firms behind the curve when it comes to adopting new technologies.

The industry’s fragmented nature exacerbates these issues. Projects often involve multiple small businesses with little knowledge transfer between them, creating barriers to innovation.

04

Financial Pressures and Labour Shortages

The construction sector is also contending with mounting financial and workforce challenges:

  • Rising Interest Rates: Inflation remains around 3%,and borrowing costs are at a 22-year high,increasing the financial burden on new developments.
  • Labour Shortages: B.C.’s construction sector employs 229,000 people,or 1 in 12 British Columbians. Of these 31,743 workers focus on single-family and small structures, while over 100,000 specialty trade contractors move between housing and other sectors.In addition, around 38,000 of these workers are expected to retire within the next decade.
  • Skills Gap: To offset these retirements, labour productivity must increase by 60%,requiring significant investment in upskilling and attracting new talent.
05

Environmental and Regulatory Challenges

Environmental and regulatory demands add further complexity:

20

Carbon Emissions

In 2023, changes aimed at reducing emissions by over 20% per home were introduced to help meet the province’s Net Zero targets by 2032.

7.2

Rising Costs

Construction costs in Metro Vancouver increased by 7.2% year-over-year in Q3 2023.With rising material prices, development charges and a competitive labour market, costs must be cut by around 50% to keep housing prices aligned with inflation.

161

Regulatory Complexity

Builders face a maze of regulations, navigating bylaws from 161 municipalities, 27 regional districts and over 200 First Nations, each with its own development codes, adding significant complexity, delays and costs to housing projects.

The ripple effects are clear: this crisis impedes economic growth, strains infrastructure and promotes urban sprawl—damaging both the environment and the quality of life. With B.C.’s population expected to rise by 2.2 million by 2046, this situation will only worsen unless we act decisively.

06

Systemic Barriers to Progress

Beyond immediate pressures, systemic issues further hinder progress:

  • Short-term Focus: The construction industry’s inevitable project-driven approach leaves little room for long-term strategic innovation.
  • Slow Feedback Loops: Housing projects take years to complete and inefficiencies are often identified too late, causing further delays.
  • Bottlenecks: Accelerating one aspect of housing, such as construction speed, can strain the supply chain, raising material costs and curbing demand.

Here’s how we see the way forward:

Boost production

through scalable, tech-powered systems that elevate efficiency and meet growing demand.

Raise the bar

from 50,490 housing starts in 2023 to 65,000 annually, surpassing the five-year average of 45,497.

Expand capacity

to manage 100,000 units under construction at any given time, ensuring B.C. stays at the forefront of housing innovation.

The future of housing in B.C. hinges on bold, aligned action. With innovation at the core, we can ensure that every community has access to sustainable, affordable homes that support growth and prosperity. Let’s move forward—together.

Interested in shaping our housing future? Get in touch today

THE PATH FORWARD: CLOSING THE GAP

The housing shortage is a deep-rooted problem that cannot be fixed with superficial solutions. Even with process improvements, the current capacity of B.C.’s construction sector—and Canada’s as a whole—falls short of meeting future demand. To bridge this gap, we must tackle the systemic challenges head-on, building a more sustainable and affordable future for every community in the province.

Building for the Future

The housing future hinges on more than temporary fixes—it requires systemic change. We must build an ecosystem that integrates innovation, efficiency and workforce readiness to meet growing demand. By harnessing technology, local expertise and strategic partnerships, we can ensure every community has the tools to construct sustainable, affordable housing. By exploring the path forward, we can tap into the potential of scalable solutions that will reshape the province’s housing landscape.

Where We Need to Be

Transforming the Housing Industry to Meet Demand

Addressing housing challenges requires more than small, incremental fixes—it demands a bold, systems-level approach. To truly meet the needs of every community, we must move beyond isolated projects and focus on building an interconnected ecosystem that drives long-term growth and resilience. This transformation is guided by three critical focus areas, each designed to tackle the core issues facing B.C.’s housing sector. By aligning efforts across these areas, we can create a balanced approach that addresses immediate needs while laying the foundation for future success.

Local businesses need to lead the charge in housing production, job creation must flourish and streamlined processes must ensure that projects move swiftly and efficiently. B.C.’s future depends on solutions that not only meet demand but also strengthen economic resilience, foster community engagement and ensure affordability. Together, these focus areas will ensure B.C.’s housing industry is equipped to navigate challenges, seize opportunities and build a more sustainable future.

Meeting Housing Needs While Ensuring Affordability 

Positioning B.C. As A Global Leader In Housing Development 

The Focus Areas To Keep At The Forefront 

The solution to B.C.’s housing crisis lies in embracing a comprehensive strategy—one that builds scalable supply chains, cultivates a skilled workforce and supports innovative business models. By looking beyond immediate pressures and focusing on sustainable, long-term growth, B.C. can position itself as a leader in housing development.

The path forward is clear: elevate the housing industry to fuel thriving local economies, create resilient communities and build a foundation for a prosperous future.

Building Smarter

Tech Innovations in Housing

Harnessing advanced technologies is critical to transforming BC’s housing sector. By integrating cutting-edge tools, we can streamline construction, improve sustainability and dramatically increase efficiency. The following technology priorities are driving this transformation:

Strengthening Foundational Technologies

Tools like digital twins, cloud-based collaboration and GIS are optimizing supply chains and project coordination, making housing production more seamless.

Digitizing Development Processes 

Automating building codes and policies speeds up the transition from blueprint to build, enhancing both accuracy and efficiency.

Utilizing Generative AI

AI is revolutionizing design, planning and production, delivering smarter, faster housing solutions.

Adopting Advanced Materials

Innovations like self-healing concrete and eco-friendly insulation are creating durable, sustainable homes aligned with BC’s climate goals.

Technology Development Map

The Technology Development Map outlines how these key tools, categorized by their impact and function, are driving efficiency, automation and innovation across the housing sector.

MAP LEGEND

Integrating technological advancements with workforce development is crucial to meeting B.C.’s future housing needs. By digitizing processes, incorporating automation and improving transparency, we can accelerate production and boost efficiency. These innovations, combined with a skilled workforce, will elevate the quality of housing while driving affordability and sustainability.

Prioritizing innovation at every stage—from design to construction—ensures that our housing system remains resilient and adaptable to evolving challenges. By embracing advanced technologies and empowering workers, we’re not just building homes—we’re crafting a sustainable, efficient future for communities across the province.

local

Mapping Out Our Opportunities

End-to-End Housing Production

Building homes isn’t a one-size-fits-all process. Achieving our housing goals demands more than good intentions—it requires a well-defined strategy that addresses every phase of production. By mapping out the entire journey, we can identify systemic improvements, prioritize critical projects and allocate resources with precision.

The End-to-End Housing Production Framework addresses this need. Developed in collaboration with industry leaders, it offers a standardized approach that simplifies the complex housing landscape, from single-family homes to high-rises. It fosters clear communication and collaboration across the board.

End-to-End Housing Production

THE LIFECYCLE OF A HOME

QUESTION
the home asks in this phase

OUTCOME
the home needs to go to the next phase

ACTIVITY
to support the outcome

Market Demand

Am I needed?

Demand Analysis

Due Diligence

Am I feasible?

Green light for development

Design & Engineering

How am I designed?

Permit applications

Pre-construction & procurement

How am I built?

Green light for construction

Construction

Am I built safely, on time, on budget?

Completed Construction

Post Construction & Commissioning

How am I ready to be used? How to improve me?

Occupancy

Maintenance & Operations

Am I cared for so I can care for my people?

Upkeep, compliance, management

End of Life?

What comes next for me?

Renovation, adaptive reuse, demolition

Adopting this framework opens up opportunities to identify innovative solutions, test new ideas and understand how decisions impact the broader housing ecosystem. It’s the structure needed to efficiently scale housing production and turn current challenges into tangible progress.

Help build our housing future—connect with us to explore opportunities.

Brick by Brick

Building a Workforce Ready for Housing Needs in B.C.

Addressing the housing crisis requires a skilled and adaptable workforce, particularly with 20% of the current labour force set to retire in the next decade. Investing in workforce development is essential to closing the labour gap, fostering diversity and equipping workers to embrace new technologies. The Workforce Development Map is our strategic plan to help support a workforce capable of meeting B.C.’s growing housing demands.

Workforce Development Map

Future ready workforce

Designing Solutions

Putting our mission into action is crucial for transforming the housing landscape. This is our blueprint for systemic change, driving collaboration and innovation across the sector. By aligning stakeholders and deploying cutting-edge strategies, we can help address housing challenges head-on. Here, we delve into the core components of our program, showcasing how we can harness collective efforts to accelerate housing production and unlock the potential of B.C.’s construction ecosystem.

Housing Growth Innovation Program

A New Strategy For Housing in B.C.

The Housing Growth Innovation (HGI) Program is designed to contribute to accelerating housing production in B.C. by focusing on three strategic areas. These priorities drive collaboration, experimentation and innovative construction methods, all aimed at increasing housing production and boosting B.C.’s economy..

The program is structured around three key components:

  • Housing Growth Innovation Lab/Network: This hub is the engine of innovation, bringing together stakeholders from various sectors to foster open collaboration and experimentation. It shapes new ideas and approaches that redefine housing development.
  • Innovation Design Workshops: These workshops take bold ideas and turn them into practical solutions. By facilitating collaboration and problem-solving, they ensure that innovation translates into real-world benefits for every region in B.C.
  • Mission Innovation Projects: This project portfolio focuses on advancing housing design, production and construction. By testing new methods and exploring innovative solutions, these projects aim to address barriers that slow housing production.

Innovation in Action

Our Cohorts

The cohorts drive key phases in our strategy, each pushing forward progress to transform the housing industry. Each cohort is a focused initiative, advancing different aspects of housing production, technology adoption and workforce development. These phases are designed to build on one another, driving incremental progress while addressing critical challenges in the housing sector.

Our Mission Innovation Projects

Cohort 1 (Closed)

Established a set of foundational projects for the portfolio. Themes included:

  • Generative design for master plans that drive optimal housing design and approval. 
  • Utilization of regional integrated mass timber production for industrialized housing kits. 
  • Integrated supply chain solutions.
  • Digitally powered inspection management and compliance.

Cohort 2 (Closed)

Focused on optimizing supply chain performance and utilizing advanced production technologies to increase housing output:

  • Regulatory-Ready Designs
  • Modular Construction 
  • Prefabricated Components
  • Automated Production
  • Supply Chain Coordination 
  • Multiplex Developments & Multifamily Housing
  • Scalable Innovations

Cohort 3 (TBC)

Will focus on knowledge mobilization, adoption strategies and training and workforce development.

Learn about updates and future workshops

The Benefits of Housing Growth Innovation

Thriving Local Economies

Strengthening local communities by boosting the housing sector and supporting industries connected to it.

Enhanced Job Opportunities

Creating new jobs and advancing career opportunities in construction and related fields through innovation and reskilling.

Growing B.C.-Based Companies

Supporting local companies involved in housing construction and innovation to stimulate the provincial economy.

Integrated Digital Supply Chains

Using technology to streamline the supply chain, ensuring faster, more efficient housing production.

New Housing Stock

Expanding the number of homes to meet increasing demand and support growing communities.

The Housing Growth Innovation Lab and Network

Bringing Everyone Under One Roof

In B.C.’s fragmented construction landscape, DIGITAL’s Housing Growth Innovation Lab and Network (HGI Lab) is a catalyst for collaboration, experimentation and innovation. It provides a neutral and secure space where stakeholders from across industries can work together to address housing challenges in new and creative ways. While this approach is familiar in other sectors, it’s a fresh concept for the housing industry.

Key Functions of the HGI Lab:

Open Innovation:

Breaking free from internal R&D, the HGI Lab embraces open innovation, a critical approach for a construction sector dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). By welcoming external partnerships, the Lab fosters creativity and cooperation to tackle housing crisis head-on.
local

local

Building Sector Connections:

The Lab bridges the gap between public, private, academic and global organizations, creating a robust network of industry experts. These connections help drive better housing outcomes through shared knowledge and collaboration.

Regional Focus with a Broad Reach:

To ensure maximum provincial impact, the Lab organizes four regional groups aligned with BC’s key economic areas:
  • Lower Mainland/Southwest,
  • Northern BC, Interior BC, 
  • and Vancouver Island/Coast.
Additionally, an Indigenous-focused group works to ensure inclusivity and access to housing opportunities for Indigenous communities.
local

local

Knowledge Sharing Hub:

Acting as an epicenter for workshops, research and insights, the Lab keeps the sector informed with updates on events, new project announcements, funding opportunities and program launches.

Partner with us to drive housing innovation. Let’s work together.

Innovative Design Workshops

Strengthening Partnerships

At the heart of solving housing challenges is collaboration. Our Innovative Design Workshops are designed to do just that—bring together organizations of all sizes to collaborate, share ideas and create actionable solutions. The goal is simple: build a tech-savvy workforce, rethink traditional approaches and foster partnerships that can move quickly to implement real change.

Key Highlights of the Workshops:

Launched in May 2024, these workshops challenge the status quo, bringing practical solutions to the table and fostering an ecosystem where every organization involved can learn, grow and collaborate for the future of housing in B.C.

Mission-Driven Innovation Projects

Collaborative Problem Solving

Our housing challenges demand more than just solutions—they require transformation. DIGITAL’s Collaborative Mission Innovation Projects are built on three pivotal pillars—Digital Design, Digital Production & Logistics and Catalysts. These pillars are reimagining how we build homes, creating a future where innovation breaks through long-standing barriers. By reshaping every aspect of the housing process, from design to delivery, we are forging a path toward a scalable, sustainable future that meets the urgent needs of communities across B.C.

Think of these three pillars as the support system for our housing future—a bridge that spans the gap between today’s challenges and tomorrow’s solutions, connecting innovation to real-world impact.

local

Roadblocks

  • Affordabillity challenges. 
  • Inefficiencies
  • Resource Constraints.

Digital Design

This pillar speeds up housing development by creating modular, regultory-ready designs, turning homes into products that can be built quickly and affordably.

Digital Production & Logistics

Using digital tools and automation, this pillar transforms the housing supply chain into an efficient, interconnected process, from start to finish.

Catalysts

Catalysts identify pressure points and develop rapid solutions through workshops and testing, ensuring that growth barriers are swiftly overcome.

Solutions

  • Affordable. 
  • Efficient. 
  • Sustainable housing for all communities in B.C.

Unlocking Possibilities

Collaboration is key to building our housing future. Now is the time to unite our expertise and resources to turn bold ideas into real, impactful solutions. By working together across industries, we can create lasting change and build a housing system that meets both today's needs and tomorrow's challenges. Let’s break ground and shape the future—together.

Turning Plans into Impact

Be A Part of the Solution

In a time when innovative housing solutions are essential, our deploy and scale strategy ensures bold ideas translate into real-world impact. But how do we ensure these innovations make an impact across industries and communities? By combining commercialization, IP development and knowledge transfer, we contribute to solutions that can extend beyond B.C.

DIGITAL unites academia, businesses, community leaders and government agencies to confront housing’s biggest challenges. Our collaborative model—focused on Canadian IP creation and results-driven co-investment—unlocks the potential for Canadian industries to lead in the digital age.

Impact Funnel

local

1. Investment Attraction

We aim to raise a $12M-$15M portfolio by matching $6M in challenge project funding with private industry investments, focusing on housing solutions with global potential.

2. Engagement

We track teams adopting digital tools for design and logistics, monitoring projects that accelerate innovation and can scale solutions across regions.

3. Accelerate Rollout

We accelerate the rollout of successful projects, ensuring other regions can replicate B.C.’s housing innovations and benefit from the solutions.

4. Encourage IP Creation

We protect housing innovations with patents and licenses, driving economic growth and positioning B.C. as a global leader in housing innovation.

5. Expand Replication

We share housing insights and innovations globally, inspiring other regions to adopt and scale similar solutions.

1. Investment Attraction

We aim to raise a $12M-$15M portfolio by matching $6M in challenge project funding with private industry investments, focusing on housing solutions with global potential.

2. Engagement

We track teams adopting digital tools for design and logistics, monitoring projects that accelerate innovation and can scale solutions across regions.

3. Accelerate Rollout

We accelerate the rollout of successful projects, ensuring other regions can replicate BC’s housing innovations and benefit from the solutions.

4. Encourage IP Creation

We protect housing innovations with patents and licenses, driving economic growth and positioning BC as a global leader in housing innovation.

5. Expand Replication

We share housing insights and innovations globally, inspiring other regions to adopt and scale similar solutions.

Continuous Improvement

Through Knowledge and Innovation

Our knowledge-sharing strategy is the backbone of driving continuous improvement in the housing sector. By benchmarking global best practices and sharing productivity-boosting innovations, we’re not just keeping up—we’re setting the pace.

A dedicated microsite will provide real-time updates on the latest breakthroughs, lessons learned and new ideas being tested, acting as a dynamic hub for collaboration. Stakeholders can connect, share insights and leverage these advancements to tackle housing challenges head-on. Open dialogue ensures our efforts stay aligned with real-world needs. By equipping organizations with the right tools, we’re empowering them to overcome obstacles and lead meaningful change.

Innovation Built to Last

DIGITAL’s Deploy and Scale approach isn’t just about launching projects—it’s about evolution, scale and impact. From investment to commercialization, we’re driving innovations that will redefine the housing landscape. It’s time to turn this blueprint into homes, solutions and lasting opportunities—one scalable innovation at a time.

Turning Plans into Impact

Ready to Build the Future?

The housing transformation hinges on collaboration. Whether you’re a leader, an innovator, or a builder, now is the time to get involved. The strategies outlined here are just the beginning—it’s time to turn these ideas into action. Let’s streamline solutions, accelerate innovation and push the limits of what’s possible in our housing sector.

Together, we’re not just solving housing challenges—we’re shaping the future.

Reach out and be part of our housing transformation

Amy Vilis,

Director of Housing Growth Innovation, DIGITAL

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

As Director of Housing Growth Innovation at DIGITAL, Canada’s Global Innovation Cluster for digital technologies, Amy leads programming aimed at accelerating housing production capacity in British Columbia. The Housing Growth Innovation program fosters digital transformation, cross-sector partnerships, and workforce development in the housing sector. Amy holds an MBA from Royal Roads University and is known for spearheading transformative projects that enhance efficiency in public and nonprofit sectors. Prior to DIGITAL, Amy worked for the City of Vancouver, managing affordable housing development and digitizing housing and permit processes.